General Overviews

A general overview of the materials covered in lecture (and study topics) can be found under The Holocaust -- A Guide for Teachers which is located within the Cybrary of the Holocaust. Holocaust related sites and information can be found through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, its Resource and Learning Info, and list of Holocaust Organizations. Students of the Holocaust should acquaint themselves with the activities and resources found at Yad Vashem. You are strongly encouraged to review the holdings of Michael Dunn's impressive Cybrary of The Holocaust, Ken McVay's The Nizkor Project, and especially Al Filreis's Literature of the Holocaust, which provides an entensive selection of English language materials and important links. Additionally, there are the holdings of the Simon Weisenthal Center in Los Angeles and B'nai Brith, which seek to educate the public on the Holocaust while making a strong case for the defense of all human rights. Finally, the following sites offer additional insights and links: Remembering The Holocaust and Robert Bennett's L'Chaim: A Holocaust Web Project.

Jerusalem South Jerusalem

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Who are the Jews?

After taking a glance at the Western or Wailing Wall in Old Jerusalem,
those seeking a better understanding of Judaism might take a look at the Global Learning Network and Project Genesis, which have a rich assortment of Divrei Torah online, including their Hypertext Halacha. For other points of view, there are the Lubavitch links outlinging their fundamental Chassidic teachings, as well as via their Lubavitchers in Texas. In addition, you could investigate the activities of the Lubavitch Rabbinical College of America, Yeshivas Tiferes Bachurim, in New Jersey or review an explanation of The Feast of Passover. As a final source, I would mention the Jewish Theological Seminary of America and its numerous programs. There are also interesting items on Judaism, including the R. Meir Leibush ben Yechiel's commentary on the Haggadah by Malbim.

In addition, Jewish/Judiac Studies (including the study of Hebrew) have been integrated into many institutions of higher learning. For examples Oxford University has a web page devoted to the the Semantics of Ancient Hebrew, the University of Oregon's Yamada Language Center has its Hebrew language program. Moving into the realm of religious studies, there are several sites listed in under Lecture and Study Topics.

Early History to 1250 BCE

Hebrew civilization traces its roots back to c. 2000 BCE when the Hebrews were one among many nomadic tribes of Semitic peoples in the northern Arabian peninsula. According to tradition, the Hebrew tribes were loosely united under the leadership of Abraham, from the Mesopotamian city of Ur. Around 1600 BCE, the Hebrews settled in northern Egypt where by 1400 BCE, according to tradition, they were enslaved.

Religion: Basic Overview

The Jews/Hebrews of 2000 BCE were probably similar to other Semitic tribes of the Arabian peninsula, namely polytheistic and oriented towards natural phenomena. Monotheism did not emerge with any clarity prior to the period associated with Moses. Early explanations of Yahweh centered on rules governing legal and moral aspects of society. This early conception of god included sacrifices, rituals, and rewards comparable to other Mesopotamian gods. During the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the Hebrew/Jewish prophets refined their view of god and the universe. Yahweh became the sole god of the universe, a god of righteousness. Persian Zoroastrianism of the 7th and 6th centuries BCE brought spirituality to the Hebrews, namely the ideas of salvation, resurrection from the dead, and the coming of a spiritual savior. By the 5th century, the Law received refinement through the formal adoption of the Pentateuch. The coming of a spiritual savior, in addition, signalled the first step towards reestablishing the kingdom of Israel on earth. Judaism in its final form attempted to answer the questions which continue to inspire the hearts and minds of leading politicians and thinkers of western culture into the present. The origin of humankind, of the stars in heaven and the earth below, and problem of evil, and the relation between humankind and God were outlined in the Pentateuch.

David-Zion Motif (ca. 950 BCE)

Religiously, this period can be characterized by a David-Zion motif (ca. 950 BCE). King David and his descendants are viewed as holding the position of king while Jerusalem is now equated with Mount Zion (the symbolic recipient of God's Law or Torah) while under God's unconditional protection.

Moses-Sinai Motif (ca. 850-720 BCE)

Solomon's death initiated a long period of military rulers, the introduction of Phoenician deities, the cult of Baal, and finally defeat by the Assyrians. As refugees fled into the southern regions, efforts were made to reconstruct history and understand God's plan for the Hebrews. This new history could be characterized as a Moses-Sinai motif (850-720 BCE) wherein Moses is reemphasized as the Law-Giver, Mount Sinai is then rendered as an unknown location, and God's covenant includes conditions for God's favor. During these times, the books of Exodus and Amos are composed. Over the course of the next century, these two motifs blended. King Josiah pulls them together: He placed restrictions on the actions of the king while separating the influence of the priests from the palace by discovering Deuteronomy. Within forty years, however, the Babylonian's would destroy Jerusalem along with the temple (587 BCE).

Babylonian Captivity (587-538 BCE)

The "Babylonian Captivity" determined the course of the history of the Jews for almost 50 years (until 538 BCE). While in captivity, Jewish chroniclers embellished their past with greater glory to maintain unity among the tribes, for example, now creation story includes references to seven days and the basic concept of creation as good. Babylonian influences appear also to include taking ideas from the Epic of Gilgamesh (e.g., the great flood) and the Babylonian God Tiamat (whose name referred to a sacred wind/spirit). Dated to roughly 550 BCE, creation took on three distinct characteristics. First, creation (Genesis) served to dymythify everyone else while promoting (second) an anthropic principle, namely, that creations existed for humankind and that human beings, as such, were a good thing. Third and finally, this vision of creation also underscored creation as a free-willed independent act of a transcendent God. Creation, thus, becomes the first stage in revelation. Revelation constitutes God's intercession in history's process. The revelations at Mount Sinai to Moses, consequently, become more important than any other appearance which, in turn, underscores the significance of the Torah, both written and oral. History, in this context, becomes the setting for revelation in which both redemption and sanctification can be achieved through adhering to God's Law (or instruction) -- an action-based religious life and practice.

The Advance into Palestine, 1250 BCE to 538 BCE

Under the leadership of Moses c. 1250 BCE, some of the Hebrew tribes left Egypt for Palestine. Moses united them through God's revelation on Mt. Sinai of His covenant with them, namely through the ten commandments (Exodus 19:3 - 20:22). According to certain Jewish traditions, Mosses composed the entire Torah (or Pentateuch) during his stay on Mt. Sinai -- whose actual location eludes us even to this day. Until the formation of the kingdom of Israel by Saul in 1010 BCE, these tribes were held together by the League of 12 Tribes. Founded on the common origins and religious beliefs of the tribes, the Judges (tribal leaders) adhered to the principles passed down to them by Moses. By the 10th century BCE, the tribes split into a northern (the ten tribes of Israel) and a southern (the 2 tribes of Judah) region. The kingdom of Israel had it ups and downs. The Philistines and the Ammonites (eastern Jordan) pressured the Israelite tribes from all sides. Although Saul defeated the Ammorites and established himself as the first monarch, the Philistines, in turn, defeated Saul and the kingdom disintegrated.

A Focus on Jerusalem

Two uniquely talented rulers guided the affairs of state from 1006 and 926 BCE: Kings David (1006-966 BCE) and Solomon (966-926 BCE). Prior to Jerusalem, Hebron had been the traditional capital of the southern regions. David, originally from Bethlehem, using mercenaries, David conducted a series of successful military campaigns against immediate threats, united Judah and Israel (northern kingdom), and captured Jerusalem, a Cannnite city of Jesubites, which became the new religious (by bringing in the Art of the Covenant) and political capitol. The son of David's wife Bathsheba, Solomon, became king in 966 BCE Solomon maintained a centralized state administration and raised the significance of Jerusalem with the building of the Temple (ca. 950 BCE) behind the palace grounds. The Temple became the place of God's residence. During the reign of Solomon, history was now being written be Solomon's scribes, who devoted a portion of their time to writing commentaries about the rule of King David -- including the less savory aspects of his life (thus, writings associated with the prophet Samuel). Solomon's own life did not correspond well to the vision of a virtuous life from traditional points of view. For example, Solomon sought marriages with the various regional leaders for political purposes. On the other hand, Solomon's scribes also wrote about the lives of Abraham, Joseph, as well as providing the more detailed insight into King David's rule.

History of the Second Temple Period, 538 BCE to 133 CE

Persia's rise brought Babylon's fall and the end of the Babylonian Captivity for the Jews. The agrarian population settled in and Jerusalem was rebuilt. Until the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, a political and religious revival in Jerusalem led to the rebuilding of the Temple. It also led to the prohibition of marriage between inhabitants of Judah and alien peoples. In 458 BCE, King Ezra gave the force of royal sanction to recognition of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) as the basis of the religion of Law (the Law was the gift of God).

Alexander the Great and Messianism

With the arrival of the Greeks in 332 BCE, the kingdom again entered a period of foreign influence and the development of various religious groups: the Pharisees (loyal to the Law but believing in the separateness of the Jewish life); the Sadducees (a strongly conservative group who later rejected the belief in immortality); and the Essenes (who believed in preparation for a messianic kingdom through ascetic living, rites of purification and monastic communities). It could be argued that while the Jews retained some degree of autonomy, they fate remained in the hands of others. After 63 BCE Palestine became part of the Roman Empire. Revolts against Roman rule in 66-70 AD and 133, resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem, the temple, and the removal of Jews from Jerusalem entirely.

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